Figure360: Trends in Parasitology, Hopkins et al., Figure 2

Defensive Symbionts Mediate Host–Parasite Interactions at Multiple Scales. In protection mutualisms, defensive symbionts protect their hosts from natural enemies, including parasites. Protection mutualisms were historically considered rare ecological relationships, but recent examples demonstrate that defensive symbionts are both quite common and diverse. Defensive symbionts can have surprisingly large effects on host and parasite ecology at the individual, population, guild, and community scale